The Book of Micah is the sixth of the twelve minor prophets in the Hebrew Bible.Ben Zvi (2000), p. 4 The book has seven chapters. Ostensibly, it records the sayings of Micah, whose name is Mikayahu (), meaning "Who is like Yahweh?",Mays (1976), p. 1 an 8th-century BCE prophet from the village of Moresheth in Judah (Hebrew name from the opening verse: מיכה המרשתי).Limburg (1988), p. 160
The book has three major divisions, chapters 1–2, 3–5 and 6–7, each introduced by the word "Hear", with a pattern of alternating announcements of doom and expressions of hope within each division.Limburg (1988), p. 159 Micah reproaches unjust leaders, defends the rights of the poor against the rich and powerful;King (1988), pp. 27–28 while looking forward to a world at peace centered on Zion under the leadership of a new Davidic monarch.Sweeney (2000), pp. 341–42
While the book is relatively short, it includes lament (1:8–16; 7:8–10), theophany (1.3–4), a hymnic prayer of petition and confidence (7:14–20),Coogan (2009), p. 284 and the "covenant lawsuit" (6:1–8), a distinct genre in which Yahweh (God) sues Israel for breach of contract of the Mosaic covenant.Coogan (2009), p. 265
The formation of the Book of Micah is debated, with a consensus that its final stage occurred during the Persian period or Hellenistic period, but uncertainty remains about whether it was formed at the time or merely finalized.
Setting
The opening verse identifies the prophet as "Micah of Moresheth" (a town in southern Judah), and states that he lived during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, roughly 750–700 BCE.
This corresponds to the period when, after a long period of peace, Israel, Judah, and the other nations of the region came under increasing pressure from the aggressive and rapidly expanding Neo-Assyrian Empire. Between 734 and 727 Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria conducted almost annual campaigns in the Levant, reducing the Kingdom of Israel, the Kingdom of Judah and the Philistine cities to vassalage, receiving tribute from Ammon, Moab and Edom, and absorbing Damascus (the Kingdom of Aram) into the Empire.King (1988), pp. 31–33 On Tiglath-Pileser's death Israel rebelled, resulting in an Assyrian counter-attack and the destruction of the capital, Samaria, in 721 after a three-year siege. Micah 1:2–7 draws on this event: Samaria, says the prophet, has been destroyed by God because of its crimes of idolatry, oppression of the poor, and misuse of power. The Assyrian attacks on Israel (the northern kingdom) led to an influx of refugees into Judah, which would have increased social stresses, while at the same time the authorities in Jerusalem had to invest huge amounts in tribute and defense.
When the Assyrians attacked Judah in 701 they did so via the Philistine coast and the Shephelah, the border region which included Micah's village of Moresheth, as well as Lachish, Judah's second largest city. This in turn forms the background to verses 1:8–16, in which Micah warns the towns of the coming disaster (Lachish is singled out for special mention, accused of the corrupt practices of both Samaria and Jerusalem). In verses 2:1–5 he denounces the appropriation of land and houses, which might simply be the greed of the wealthy and powerful, or possibly the result of the militarizing of the area in preparation for the Assyrian attack.
Composition
The formation of the Book of Micah is a topic of scholarly debate. The 2021 Oxford Handbook of the Minor Prophets summarizes:
"There is a consensus that the book has a long history of formation with the Persian (or even Hellenistic) period as its last stage. However, it is contested whether it was formed in these days or only finalized after a longer history of tradition."
Some, but not all, scholars accept that only chapters 1–3 contain material from the late 8th-century BCE prophet Micah. According to scholars, the latest material comes from the post-Exilic period after the Temple was rebuilt in 515 BCE, so that the early 5th century BCE seems to be the period when the book was completed.Mays (1976), p. 21 The first stage was the collection and arrangement of some spoken sayings of the historical Micah (the material in chapters 1–3), in which the prophet attacks those who build estates through oppression and depicts the Assyrian invasion of Judah as Yahweh's punishment on the kingdom's corrupt rulers, including a prophecy that the Temple will be destroyed.Mays (1976), p. 23
The prophecy was not fulfilled in Micah's time, but a hundred years later when Judah was facing a similar crisis with the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Micah's prophecies were reworked and expanded to reflect the new situation.Mays (1976), pp. 24–25 Still later, after Jerusalem fell to the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the book was revised and expanded further to reflect the circumstances of the late exilic and post-exilic community.Mays (1976), p. 30
Surviving early manuscripts The oldest surviving manuscripts were made hundreds of years after the period or periods of authorship. The earliest surviving Masoretic Text versions include the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), and Codex Leningradensis (1008). Since 1947, the current text of the Aleppo Codex is missing Micah 1:1 to 5:1.
Fragments containing parts of this book in the original Biblical Hebrew were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q82 (25 BCE);Dead sea scrolls - Micah and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (75–100 CE).
There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BCE. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (5th century) and Codex Marchalianus (6th century). The Book of Micah is missing in the extant Codex Sinaiticus. Some fragments containing parts of this book in Greek were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, that is, Naḥal Ḥever 8Ḥev1 (late 1st century BCE).
Content
Structure At the broadest level, Micah can be divided into three roughly equal parts:King (1988), p. 27 Judgment against the nations and their leaders Restoration of Zion (chapters 4–5, which belong together despite their possibly unclear connection, probably exilic and post-exilic);Rogerson (2003), p. 703 God's lawsuit against Israel and expression of hope (chapters 6–7, also probably exilic and post-exilic).
James Limburg sees the word "Hear" in Micah 1:2, 3:1 and 6:1 as the marker for three separate sections, noting that Amos 3:1, 4:1, 5:1 and 8:4 mark similar divisions within the Book of Amos, another of the minor prophets.
Within this broad three-part structure are a series of alternating oracles of judgment and promises of restoration:Coogan (2009) 1.1 Superscription 1.2–2.11 Oracles of judgment 2.12–13 Oracles of restoration 3.1–12 Oracles of judgment 4.1–5.15 Oracles of restoration 6.1–7.6 Oracles of judgment 7.7–20 Oracles of restoration
Verse numbering There is a difference in verse numbering between English Bibles and Hebrew texts, with Micah 4:14 in Hebrew texts being Micah 5:1 in English Bibles, and the Hebrew 5:1 etc. being numbered 5:2 etc. in English Bibles.Footnote a at Micah 5:1 in the New English Translation (NET Bible), accessed on 4 September 2024 This article generally follows the common numbering in Christian English Bible versions.
Subsections The Heading: As is typical of prophetic books, an anonymous editor or scribe has supplied the name of the prophet, an indication of his time of activity, and an identification of his speech as the "word of Yahweh", a generic term carrying a claim to prophetic legitimacy and authority.Ben Zvi (2000), p. 13 Samaria and Jerusalem are given prominence as the foci of the prophet's attention.Sweeney (2000), p. 343 Unlike prophets such as Isaiah and Hosea, no record of his father's name has been retained.Taylor, John, "The Message of Micah", The Biblical World, vol. 25, no. 3, 1905, p. 201 footnote 1 and p. 202. JSTOR website Retrieved 25 January 2020. Judgment against Samaria (1:2–7): Drawing upon ancient traditions for depicting a theophany, the prophet depicts the coming of Yahweh to punish the city, whose sins are idolatry and the abuse of the poor. Warnings to the cities of Judah (1:8–16): Samaria has fallen, Judah is next. Micah describes the destruction of the lesser towns of Judah (referring to the invasion of Judah by Sennacherib, 701 BCE). For these passages of doom on the various cities, paronomasia is used. Paronomasia is a literary device which 'plays' on the sound of each word for literary effect. For example, the inhabitants of Beth-le-aphrah ("house of dust") are told to "roll yourselves in the dust" (1:14). Though most of the paronomasia is lost in translation, it is the equivalent of 'Ashdod shall be but ashes,' where the fate of the city matches its name. Misuse of power denounced (2:1–5): Denounces those who appropriate the land and houses of others. The context may be simply the amassing wealth for its own sake, or could be connected with the militarisation of the region for the expected Assyrian attack.Rogerson (2003), p. 704 Threats against the prophet (2:6–11): The prophet is warned not to prophesy. He answers that the rulers are harming God's people, and want to listen only to those who advocate the virtues of wine. A later promise (2:12–13): These verses assume that judgment has already fallen and Israel is already scattered abroad. Judgment on wicked Zion (3:1–4): Israel's rulers are accused of gaining more wealth at the expense of the poor, by any means. The metaphor of flesh being torn from the people illustrates the length to which the ruling classes and socialites would go to further increase their wealth. Prophets are corrupt, seeking personal gain. Jerusalem's rulers believe that God will always be with them, but God will be with his people, and Jerusalem will be destroyed.Rogerson (2003), pp. 704–05 Prophets for Profit (3:5-8): those condemned by Micah are explicitly called "prophets", while he appears to distance himself from personally being called a prophet.Williamson, H. G. M., 32. Micah, in Barton, J. and Muddiman, J. (2001), The Oxford Bible Commentary A concluding judgment (3:9-12) drawing together chapters 2–3. Zion's future hope (4:1–5): This is a later passage, almost identical to Isaiah 2:2–4. In the "latter days", "last days", or "the days to come",Cheyne, T. K. (1882), Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges on Micah 4, accessed on 7 September 2024 Zion (meaning the Temple) will be rebuilt, but by God, and based not on violence and corruption but on the desire to learn God's laws, beat swords into ploughshares and live in peace.Rogerson (2003), p. 705
Further promises to Zion (4:6–7): This is another later passage, promising Zion that she will once more enjoy her former independence and power. Deliverance from distress in Babylon (4:9–5:1, 4:9-14 in Hebrew Bible numbering) The similarity with Isaiah 41:15–16 and the references to Babylon suggest a later period for this material, although it is unclear whether a period during or after the siege of 586 is meant. Despite their trials, God will not desert his people. The promised ruler from Bethlehem (5:1–14): This passage is usually dated to the exile.Rogerson (2003), pp. 705–06 Although Micah 4:9 has asked "is there no king" in Zion,: English Standard Version this chapter predicts that the coming Messiah will emerge from Bethlehem, the traditional home of the Davidic monarchy, to restore Israel. Assyria will invade (some translations prefer "if the Assyrians invade"),For example, the New Revised Standard Version at but she will be stricken, and Israel's punishment will lead to the punishment of the nations.Sweeney (2000), p. 387 Williamson treats Micah 4:8-5:6 as one unit, with "a clear and balanced structure".