Nyāya (Sanskrit: न्यायः, IAST: nyāyaḥ), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment", is one of the six orthodox (Āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy. Nyāya's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were the systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology.B Gupta (2012), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge and Freedom, Routledge, , pages 171–189PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought: Toward a Constructive Postmodern Ethics, State University of New York Press, , page 223
Nyāya epistemology accepts four out of six pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāna (comparison and analogy) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, , page 238DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony J. Marsella), Springer, , page 172Gavin Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, , page 225 In its metaphysics, Nyāya school is closer to the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism than others. It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance).Vassilis Vitsaxis (2009), Thought and Faith, Somerset Hall Press, , page 131 Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led Nyāya to concern itself with epistemology, that is the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyyayikas, it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding true nature of soul, self and reality.BK Matilal (1997), Logic, Language and Reality: Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 353–357
Naiyyayika scholars approached philosophy as a form of direct realism, stating that anything that really exists is in principle humanly knowable. To them, correct knowledge and understanding is different from simple, reflexive cognition; it requires Anuvyavasaya (अनुव्यवसाय, cross-examination of cognition, reflective cognition of what one thinks one knows). An influential collection of texts on logic and reason is the Nyāya Sūtras, attributed to Aksapada Gautama, variously estimated to have been composed between the 6th century BCE and the 2nd century CE.Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , page 129B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.
Nyāya school shares some of its methodology and human suffering foundations with Buddhism; however, a key difference between the two is that Buddhism believes that there is neither a soul nor self;KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, , pages 246–249, from note 385 onwards;Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, , page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";Edward Roer (Translator), , pages 2–4Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now;John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism". Nyāya school like some other schools of Hinduism such as Dvaita and Viśiṣṭādvaita believes that there is a soul and self, with liberation (mokṣa) as a state of removal of ignorance, wrong knowledge, the gain of correct knowledge, and unimpeded continuation of self.BK Matilal (1997), Logic, Language and Reality: Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 354–355David Ambeul (1998), Ontology in Indian Philosophy, in Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Editor: Edward Craig), Routledge, , pages 118–127
Etymology Nyaya (न्याय) is a Sanskrit word which means justice, equality for all being, specially a collection of general or universal rules. In some contexts, it means model, axiom, plan, legal proceeding, judicial sentence, or judgment. Nyaya could also mean, "that which shows the way" tracing its Sanskrit etymology. In the theory of logic, and Indian texts discussing it, the term also refers to an argument consisting of an enthymeme or sometimes for any syllogism.nyAya Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany In philosophical context, Nyaya encompasses propriety, logic and method., Hindu Philosophy, Volume 32, page 1260
Panini, revered Sanskrit grammarian, derives the "Nyaya" from the root "i" which conveys the same meaning as "gam" – to go. "Nyaya" signifying logic is there etymologically identical with "nigama" the conclusion of a syllogism.The Nyaya Sutras of Gautama (Original Text, English Translation & Commentary) Translated & English Commentary by M.M. Satisa Candra Vidyabhusana Edited with a Sanskrit Preface by Dr. Sukhram
Nyaya is related to several other concepts and words used in Indian philosophies: Hetu-vidya (science of causes), Anviksiki (science of inquiry, systematic philosophy), Pramana-sastra (epistemology, science of correct knowledge), Tattva-sastra (science of categories), Tarka-vidya (science of reasoning, innovation, synthesis), Vadartha (science of discussion) and Phakkika-sastra (science of uncovering sophism, fraud, error, finding fakes).N Sinha (1990), The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama, Motilal Banarsidass, , see Introduction, pages i–ii Some of these subsume or deploy the tools of Nyaya.
Development
The historical development of Nyāya school is unclear, although Nasadiya hymns of Book 10 Chapter 129 of Rigveda recite its spiritual questions in logical propositions. In early centuries BCE, states Clooney, the early Nyāya scholars began compiling the science of rational, coherent inquiry and pursuit of knowledge.Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press, , pages 18–19, 35–39
Foundational Text Aksapada Gautama composed the Nyāya Sūtras (by the 2nd century CE), a foundational text for Nyāya, that primarily discusses logic, methodology and epistemology. Gautama is also known as Aksapada and Dirghatapas.Padmapurana Uttarakhanda, Chapter 263 The names Gotama and Gautama points to the family to which he belonged while the names Aksapada and Dirghatapas refer respectively to his meditative habit and practice of long penance. The people of Mithila (modern Darbhanga in North Bihar) ascribe the foundation of Nyāya philosophy to Gautama, husband of Ahalya, and point out as the place of his birth a village named Gautamasthana where a fair is held every year on the 9th day of the lunar month of Chaitra (March–April). It is situated 28 miles north-east of Darbhanga.
Commentarial Tradition Concepts in the foundational text, the Nyaya Sutras, were clarified through a tradition of commentaries. Commentaries were also a means to defend the philosophy from misinterpretations by scholars of other traditions.
The Nyāya scholars that followed refined, expanded, and applied the Nyaya Sutras to spiritual questions. While the early Nyaya scholars published little to no analysis on whether supernatural power or God exists, they did apply their insights into reason and reliable means to knowledge to the questions of nature of existence, spirituality, happiness and moksha. Later Nyāya scholars, such as Udayana, examined various arguments on theism and attempted to prove existence of God. Other Nyāya scholars offered arguments to disprove the existence of God.G. Jha (1919), Original atheism of the Nyaya, in Indian Thought – Proceedings and Transactions of the First Oriental Congress, Vol ii, pages 281–285Dale Riepe (1979), Indian Philosophy Since Independence, Volume 1, BR Grüner Netherlands, , page 38
The most important contribution made by the Nyāya school to Hindu thought has been its treatises on epistemology and system of logic that, subsequently, has been adopted by the majority of the other Indian schools.Oliver Leaman (2006), Nyaya, in Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy, Routledge, , pages 405–407
Textual sources In the Yājñavalkya Smṛti, Nyāya is mentioned as one of the fourteen principal branches of learning. The Matsya-Purāṇa states that knowledge of Nyāya came from the mouth of Brahmā. The Mahābhārata also mentions principles of Nyāya.
The earliest text of the Nyāya School is the of . The text is divided into five books, each having two sections. Vatsyayana's is a classic commentary on the . Udyotakara's (6th century CE) is written to defend against the attacks made by Dignāga. 's (9th century CE) is the next major exposition of this school. Two other texts, and are also attributed to him. Udayana's (984 CE) is an important commentary on 's treatise. His is the first systematic account of theistic . His other works include , and . Jayanta Bhatta's (10th century CE) is basically an independent work. Bhasarvajna's Nyayasara (10th century CE) is a survey of philosophy.Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2006, , pp.36–40
The later works on accepted the categories and 's (12th century CE) is a notable treatise of this syncretist school. 's (13th century CE) is another important work of this school.Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2006, , p.40
's (14th century CE) is the first major treatise of the new school of . His son, 's , though a commentary on Udayana's , incorporated his father's views. Jayadeva wrote a commentary on known as (14th century CE). 's (16th century CE) is first great work of Navadvipa school of . 's and are the next important works of this school. 's (17th century CE) is also a notable work.Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2006, , p.41 The Commentaries on by Jagadish Tarkalankar (17th century CE) and Gadadhar Bhattacharya (17th century CE) are the last two notable works of this school.
(17th century CE) tried to develop a consistent system by combining the ancient and the new schools, and and to develop the school. His and are the popular manuals of this school.
Metaphysics
Sixteen categories (padārthas) The Nyāya metaphysics recognizes sixteen padarthas or categories and includes all six (or seven) categories of the Vaisheshika in the second one of them, called prameya.Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, , p.192
These sixteen categories are:
Methods and objects of inquiry pramāṇa (valid means of knowledge or knowledge sources), prameya (objects of valid knowledge), Conditions and the components of inquiry saṁśaya (doubt), prayojana (aim), dṛṣṭānta (example), siddhānta (conclusion or accepted position), avayava (members of syllogism or inferential components), tarka (hypothetical/suppositional reasoning), nirṇaya (settlement or certainty), Forms of and strategies for debate vāda (truth-directed debate), jalpa (victory-directed debate), vitaṇḍā (destructive debate), hetvābhāsa (defective reasons), chala (tricks), jāti (sophisticated refutation or misleading/futile objections) and