The Essenes (; Hebrew: , ; Greek: , , or , ) or Essenians were a mystic Jewish community during the Second Temple period that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE.
The Essene movement likely originated as a distinct group among Jews during Jonathan Apphus's time, driven by disputes over Jewish law and the belief that Jonathan's high priesthood was illegitimate. Most scholars think the Essenes seceded from the Zadokite priests.F. F. Bruce, Second Thoughts on the Dead Sea Scrolls. Paternoster Press, 1956. They attributed their interpretation of the Torah to their early leader, the Teacher of Righteousness, possibly a legitimate high priest. Embracing a conservative approach to Jewish law, they observed a strict hierarchy favoring priests (the Sons of Zadok) over laypeople, emphasized ritual purity, and held a dualistic worldview.
According to Jewish writers Josephus and Philo, the Essenes numbered around four thousand, and resided in various settlements throughout Judaea. Conversely, Roman writer Pliny the Elder positioned them somewhere above Ein Gedi, on the west side of the Dead Sea. cf. English translation. Pliny relates in a few lines that the Essenes possess no money, had existed for thousands of generations, and that their priestly class ("contemplatives") did not marry. Josephus gave a detailed account of the Essenes in The Jewish War (), with a shorter description in Antiquities of the Jews () and The Life of Flavius Josephus (). Claiming firsthand knowledge, he lists the Essenoi as one of the three sects of Jewish philosophyJosephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.119. alongside the Pharisees and Sadducees. He relates the same information concerning piety, celibacy; the absence of personal property and of money; the belief in communality; and commitment to a strict observance of Sabbath. He further adds that the Essenes ritually immersed in water every morning (a practice similar to the use of the mikveh for daily immersion found among some contemporary Hasidim), ate together after prayer, devoted themselves to charity and benevolence, forbade the expression of anger, studied the books of the elders, preserved secrets, and were very mindful of the names of the angels kept in their sacred writings.
The Essenes have gained fame in modern times as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the Dead Sea Scrolls, which are commonly believed to be the Essenes' library. The scrolls were found at Qumran, an archaeological site situated along the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, believed to have been the dwelling place of an Essene community. These documents preserve multiple copies of parts of the Hebrew Bible along with deuterocanonical and sectarian manuscripts, including writings such as the Community Rule, the Damascus Document, and the War Scroll.
According to the conventional view, the Essenes disappeared after the First Jewish–Roman War, which also witnessed the destruction of the settlement at Qumran. Scholars have noted the absence of direct sources supporting this claim, raising the possibility of their endurance or the survival of related groups in the following centuries. Some researchers suggest that Essene teachings could have influenced other religious traditions, such as Mandaeism and Christianity.
Etymology Josephus uses the name Essenes in his two main accounts, The Jewish War 2.119, 158, 160 and Antiquities of the Jews, 13.171–2, but some manuscripts read here Essaion ("holding the Essenes in honour";Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.372. "a certain Essene named Manaemus";Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 15.373. "to hold all Essenes in honor";Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 15.378. "the Essenes").Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 18.11.Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 18.18.Josephus. The Life of Flavius Josephus. 10.
In several places, however, Josephus has Essaios, which is usually assumed to mean Essene ("Judas of the Essaios race";Josephus. The Wars of the Jews. I.78. "Simon of the Essaios race";Josephus. The Wars of the Jews. 2.113. "John the Essaios";Josephus. The Wars of the Jews. 2.567; 3.11. "those who are called by us Essaioi";Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 15.371. "Simon a man of the Essaios race").Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 17.346. Josephus identified the Essenes as one of the three major Jewish sects of that period.And when I was about sixteen years old, I had a mind to make trial of the several sects that were among us. These sects are three: The first is that of the Pharisees, the second that Sadducees, and the third that of the Essenes, as we have frequently told you The Life of Josephus Flavius, 2.
Philo's usage is Essaioi, although he admits this Greek form of the original name, that according to his etymology signifies "holiness", to be inexact.Philo. Quod Omnis Probus Liber. XII.75–87. Pliny's Latin text has Esseni.Pliny the Elder. Natural History. 5.73.
Gabriele Boccaccini implies that a convincing etymology for the name Essene has not been found, but that the term applies to a larger group within Judea that also included the Qumran community.
It was proposed before the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered that the name came into several Greek spellings from a Hebrew self-designation later found in some Dead Sea Scrolls, ʻosey haTorah, "'doers' or 'makers' of Torah". Although dozens of etymology suggestions have been published, this is the only etymology published before 1947 that was confirmed by Qumran text self-designation references, and it is gaining acceptance among scholars.For example, James C. VanderKam, "Identity and History of the Community". In The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment, ed. Peter W. Flint and James C. VanderKam, 2:487–533. Leiden: Brill, 1999. The earliest known proposer of this etymology was P. Melanchthon, in Johann Carion, Chronica, 1532, folio 68 verso. Among the other proposers before 1947, e.g., 1839 Isaak Jost, "Die Essaer," Israelitische Annalen 19, 145–7. It is recognized as the etymology of the form Ossaioi (and note that Philo also offered an O spelling) and Essaioi and Esseni spelling variations have been discussed by VanderKam, Goranson, and others. In medieval Hebrew (e.g., Sefer Yosippon) Hassidim "the Pious" replaces "Essenes". While this Hebrew name is not the etymology of Essaioi/Esseni, the Aramaic equivalent Hesi'im known from Eastern Aramaic texts has been suggested. Others suggest that Essene is a transliteration of the Hebrew word ḥiṣonim (ḥiṣon "outside"), which the Mishnah (e.g., Megillah 4:8) uses to describe various sectarian groups. Another theory is that the name was borrowed from a cult of devotees to Artemis in Anatolia, whose demeanor and dress somewhat resembled those of the group in Judea.
Flavius Josephus in Chapter 8 of "The Jewish War" states:
Location
According to Josephus, the Essenes had settled "not in one city" but "in large numbers in every town".Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.124. Philo speaks of "more than four thousand" Essaioi living in "Palestine and Syria",Philo (). Quod Omnis Probus Liber. XII.75. more precisely, "in many cities of Judaea and in many villages and grouped in great societies of many members".Philo. Hypothetica. 11.1. in Eusebius. Praeparatio Evangelica. VIII.
Pliny locates them "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast ... [above] the town of Engeda".
Some modern scholars and archeologists have argued that Essenes inhabited the settlement at Qumran, a plateau in the Judean Desert along the Dead Sea, citing Pliny the Elder in support and giving credence that the Dead Sea Scrolls are the product of the Essenes. This theory, though not yet conclusively proven, has come to dominate the scholarly discussion and public perception of the Essenes.Ellegård, Alvar; Jesus—One Hundred Years Before Christ: A Study in Creative Mythology, (London 1999).
According to archeologist Rachel Hachlili, the individual, isolated burials found at the Qumran cemeteries differ from typical Jewish burial customs: "The old Jewish tradition of burying the dead with their ancestors was not followed by the Qumran community, where individual burial was stressed." This seems to indicate "that the residents of Qumran were not families and that it was a community cemetery."
In the same area along the Dead Sea shore there are also the sites of Ein Feshkha and Ain el-Ghuweir, which have been linked with the Qumran settlement.
Rules, customs, theology, and beliefs The accounts by Josephus and Philo show that the Essenes led a strictly communal life—often compared to later Christian monasticism.The suggestion apparently goes back to Flinders Petrie's Personal religion in Egypt before Christianity (1909), 62ff; see William Herbert Mackean, Christian Monasticism in Egypt to the Close of the Fourth Century (1920), p. 18. Many of the Essene groups appear to have been celibate, but Josephus speaks also of another "order of Essenes" that observed the practice of being engaged for three years and then becoming married.Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. book II, chap. 8, para. 13. According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as collective ownership,Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.122.Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.20. electing a leader to attend to the interests of the group, and obedience to the orders from their leader.Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.123, 134. Also, they were forbidden from swearing oathsJosephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.135. and from sacrificing animals.Philo, §75: ου ζωα καταθυοντες [= not sacrificing animals] They controlled their tempers and served as channels of peace, carrying weapons only for protection against robbers.Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.125. The Essenes chose not to possess slaves but served each otherPhilo of Alexandria, Every Good Man is Free, 75-79. and, as a result of communal ownership, did not engage in trading.Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.127. Josephus and Philo provide lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals, and religious celebrations. This communal living has led some scholars to view the Essenes as a group practicing social and material egalitarianism.