Merveilleux scientifique (also spelled with a hyphen: merveilleux-scientifique, literally translated "scientific marvelous") is a literary genre that developed in France from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century. Akin today to science fiction, this literature of scientific imagination revolves around key themes such as mad scientists and their extraordinary inventions, lost worlds, exploration of the Solar System, catastrophes and the advent of supermen.
Emerging in the wake of Jules Verne's scientific novels, this literary current took shape in the second half of the 19th century, moving away from the Verne model and centering on a new generation of authors such as Albert Robida, Camille Flammarion, J.-H. Rosny aîné and Maurice Renard, the latter claiming the works of the more imaginative novelists Edgar Allan Poe and H. G. Wells as his model. Consequently, in 1909 Renard published a manifesto in which he appropriated a neologism coined in the 19th century, "merveilleux scientifique", adding a hyphen to emphasize the link between the modernization of the fairy tale and the rationalization of the supernatural. Thus defined, the merveilleux-scientifique novel, set within a rational framework, relies on the alteration of a scientific law around which the plot is built, in order to give the reader food for thought by presenting the threats and delights of science.
Mainly employed by popular novelists, this genre draws on the sciences and pseudo-sciences that resonate with public opinion, such as radiographic, electrical and biological discoveries. However, despite the theoretical foundation provided by Maurice Renard in 1909, merveilleux-scientifique literature failed to take shape as a literary movement, and in the end constituted no more than a heterogeneous and scattered literary whole. Despite the arrival of a new generation of authors such as , , , Jacques Spitz and André Maurois, this literature failed to renew itself and gradually declined from the 1930s onwards, while at the same time, in the United States, literature of scientific imagination enjoyed great success under the name of "science fiction", with a broadening of its themes. Presented as a new genre, science fiction arrived in France in the 1950s and, seducing French authors and readers, completed the demise of the merveilleux-scientifique current and its generations of writers.
A marginal and unassumed genre during the second half of the 20th century, merveilleux scientifique has been the subject of renewed public attention since the late 1990s, thanks to the critical work of a number of researchers and the reappropriation of this forgotten literary genre by authors, particularly in the comic strip medium.
Origins
Although some authors, such as Rabelais, experimented with conjectural literature early on in their fictional careers, Costes and Atairac 2018, p. 1682. it wasn't until the 19th century that the genre really took off. Costes and Atairac 2018, p. 2457. In fact, as early as the end of the eighteenth century, began publishing his "" between 1787 and 1789, the first collection devoted to the literature of the imaginary. Boutel 2015, p. 304. In its thirty-six volumes, the collection offers seventy-four conjectural tales on the themes of utopia, exploration and scientific anticipation. Versins 1972, p. 944.
In the 19th century, despite a short-lived attempt at structuring, literature of this kind remained scattered and diffusely published. In 1834, attempted to catalogue all the inventions from which humans could benefit in . The following year, Edgar Allan Poe published The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall, a journalistic hoax detailing a man's incredible journey to the Moon. In 1846, Émile Souvestre published , an anticipation tale set in the year 3000. It is still considered a major work of dystopian literature. In 1854, C. I. Defontenay broke new ground in scientific fantasy literature with the publication of . The novel included detailed descriptions of the habits and customs of an extraterrestrial civilization. Boutel 2015, p. 305-306. However, this production does not establish a specific literary genre due to its scattered nature, as many novelists attribute such ramblings to the narrator's dreams or madness. Nonetheless, it has yet to establish itself. Boutel 2015, p. 308.
This literature underwent a crucial shift with the release of Jules Verne's scientific novels, which played a key role in popularizing a new literary genre. As one of the pioneers of science fiction, Verne's impact on stories rooted in scientific imagination is profound - so much so that it eclipsed a whole emerging literary movement that was slowly coalescing around several writers. Boutel 2015, p. 309. Nonetheless, during the rise of Vernian stories, the "merveilleux scientifique" genre emerged cautiously, coinciding with the progress of both sciences and pseudosciences. Likewise, from the 1880s onwards, psychiatric observations occupied a place in popular imagination.Gordon 1988, p. 9. Indeed, the studies on hypnosis conducted by Doctors James Braid and Eugène Azam in the 1840s, followed by the research of Doctor Charcot in the latter part of the nineteenth century, revealed the mysteries of every individual, thereby transforming the once perceived supernatural phenomena into a natural occurrence and providing a rational explanation for the remarkable abilities manifested by convulsionaries or those possessed.Gordon 1988, p. 18. This scientific community was enriched by notable researchers like Marie and Pierre Curie, Charles Richet, and Camille Flammarion. They systematically investigated unexplained phenomena by focusing on uncovering hidden worlds, long-range communication, and X-ray vision. Hopkins 2019a, p. 67.
By the close of the 19th century, public opinion became more sensitive to scientific theories as practices previously regarded as outlandish sought validation as scientific disciplines, including phrenology, Deherly 2019. hypnotherapy, and fakirism. Hopkins 2018a, p. 244. Technological advancements, such as the discovery of X-rays and endeavors to communicate with Mars, further contributed to this increasing sensitivity. These newly emerging scientific or pseudo-scientific developments have been prominently featured in publications such as Je sais tout and Lectures pour tous. These magazines consecutively published articles that disseminated and speculated about the future of science, accompanied by anticipatory short stories. Hopkins 2019c.
The late 19th century witnessed a new generation of writers, such as J.-H. Rosny aîné, utilizing science and pseudoscience for purely fictional purposes.Evans 2018a, § 2. This marked a significant departure from their predecessors, who employed the conjectural element as a pretext, following in the footsteps of Savinian Cyrano de Bergerac's utopian, Jonathan Swift's satires, and Camille Flammarion's astronomical exposés. Pézard 2018a, § 13.
Definition "Merveilleux scientifique", a literature of the imaginary with vaguely defined boundaries
The term "merveilleux scientifique" was ambiguous before Maurice Renard's seminal manifesto. It had varying meanings. Hopkins 2018a, p. 241. Literary critics coined this neologism in the 19th century to designate all works of fiction relating to science, whether they aimed to merge science and wonder or were generally scientific novels. Hopkins 2018a, p. 252. In 1875, Louis Énault, a journalist, coined the term "merveilleux scientifique" to describe the plot of Victorien Sardou's La Perle noire which utilizes scientific explanations to justify unlikely events. Hopkins 2018a, p. 253. Literary critic Charles Le Goffic associated the term with the scientific novels of Jules Verne in his study Les romanciers aujourd'hui (1890). The term "Wonder" was coined by , a physiologist, in his book "Le Merveilleux scientifique" in 1894 to describe the scientific study of phenomena that were once deemed marvelous. Pézard 2018a, § 37.
However, during the early 20th century, literary critics primarily used the term to refer to H. G. Wells' novels. Marcel Réja, a psychiatrist, discussed this usage in his 1904 article published in "Le Mercure de France" titled "H.-G." It is plausible that Maurice Renard initially came across the term "merveilleux scientifique" in H. G. Wells' works. "The Concept of merveilleux scientifique in the Writings of Maurice Renard and its Origins in H. G. Wells". Comparing the scientific imagination of Wells and Jules Verne is a recurring theme among critics analyzing the intersection of science and imagination. When Renard published his groundbreaking article, scholars had already been intrigued by this new literary genre for years. Pézard 2018a, § 2.
Theorizing a literary genre: the "Renardian merveilleux-scientifique novel"
At the turn of the 20th century, the term "merveilleux scientifique" held various connotations until Maurice Renard redefined the phrase in 1909. Follow conventional academic structures including regular author and institution formatting, while using clear, objective language with a passive tone, avoiding personal perspectives and hedging. Additionally, maintain formal register, precise word choice, and grammatical correctness while using consistent citation and avoiding filler words. He outlined his literary agenda in three articles, notably "Du roman merveilleux-scientifique et de son action sur l'intelligence du progrès," which debuted in Le Spectateur during October 1909, and "Le Merveilleux scientifique et La Force mystérieuse de J.-H." Rosny aine was published in La Vie in June 1914 and "Le roman d'hypothese" was published in the magazine ABC in 1928. Pézard 2018a, § 1. The writer's literary career showcased evolution in not only the definition of the genre but also its name, thereby complicating the understanding of the term "merveilleux scientifique." Hopkins 2018a, p. 258.
The 1909 Manifesto
In the 19th century, literary critics pondered the future of fantastique stories. Maurice Renard believed that the gradual disappearance of the supernatural due to scientific advances required a renewal of fantasy. Therefore, writers must use science to create and explore new forms of the marvelous in the face of this disenchantment with the world. Pézard 2018a, § 39-40. In 1909, the writer released a manifesto titled "Du roman merveilleux-scientifique et de son action sur l'intelligence du progrès." The manifesto aimed to establish the existence of a novelistic genre with autonomy and literary value within the critical field. Pézard 2018a, § 56. In this article, the author establishes compositional rules for rational novelistic conjecture Hopkins 2018b, § 21. and introduces the concept of "merveilleux scientifique," previously applied to certain works by writers such as H. G. Wells, J.-H. Rosny aîné, and Jules Verne. Hopkins 2018a, p. 246. However, the author does not simply acknowledge the existence of the "merveilleux scientifique" theme but rather strictly defines and elevates it to a distinct literary genre. In his opinion, the change in status justifies a new syntax, specifically, including a hyphen between the two words, which incidentally changes the noun into an adjective. Pézard 2018a, § 12.